Survey of industrial manipulation technologies for autonomous assembly applications

A servo adjustable gripper device for gripping and transporting at least two objects such as boxes includes a frame and at least two gripper assemblies connected with carriages slidably connected with the frame. The gripper device further includes a robotic arm which controls further movement and placement of the boxes on a pallet. The position of the gripper assemblies on the frame is adjustable to provide equal lifting force for a variety of differently sized boxes or for different numbers of boxes. See Figure 20. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 36 of 63 Figure 20 – (left) Side view and (right) isometric view of the “Servo Adjustable Gripper Device” shown in U.S. Patent No. 7,134,833 B2. U.S. Patent No. 7,837,247 B2, called: “Gripper with Central Support,” issued to Waldorf, Jenkins, and Kalb, November 23, 2010: Abstract: A gripper assembly includes at least one gripper jaw and an actuator head linked with at least one gripper jaw. An actuator selectively operates to move the actuator head between a plurality of positions. A support is fixed relative to the actuator and includes a guide slot that guides the actuator head. One of the actuator heads or the guide slot includes a channel and the other of the actuator head or the guide slot includes a guide member extending at least partially into the channel. See Figure 21. A dual rod gripper version was also invented by Waldorf, et. al. under U.S. patent number 7854456. A gripper assembly includes at least one gripper jaw and an actuator head linked with at least one gripper jaw. An actuator selectively operates to move the actuator head between a plurality of positions. A support is fixed relative to the actuator and includes a guide slot that guides the actuator head. One of the actuator heads or the guide slot includes a channel and the other of the actuator head or the guide slot includes a guide member extending at least partially into the channel. See Figure 21. A dual rod gripper version was also invented by Waldorf, et. al. under U.S. patent number 7854456. Figure 21 “Gripper with Central Support” from U.S. Patent No. 7,837,247 B2. U.S. Patent No. US 2009/0067973 A1, called: “Gripper Device,” issued to Eliuk, Rob, Jones, and Deck, March 12, 2009: Abstract: Gripper devices for handling syringes and automated pharmacy and mixture systems that utilize such gripper devices. The gripper devices may include various gripper finger profiles, substantially tapered or angled gripping surfaces, and/or gripper fingers interleaving to reduce radial distortion of the syringes to be grasped while opposing axial motion of the syringes. See Figure 22. Gripper devices for handling syringes and automated pharmacy and mixture systems that utilize such gripper devices. The gripper devices may include various gripper finger profiles, substantially tapered or angled gripping surfaces, and/or gripper fingers interleaving to reduce radial distortion of the syringes to be grasped while opposing axial motion of the syringes. See Figure 22. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 37 of 63 Figure 22 “Gripper Device” from U.S. Patent No. US 2009/0067973 A1. Other recent gripper patents found using the same search criteria as above include: “Slide Gripper Assembly” having a slide assembly coupled to a gripper assembly. U.S. Patent No. 7,188,879 B2, by McIntosh, Steele, Givens, and Davenport on March 13, 2007 “Expandable Finger Gripper” for gripping the inside of containers or parts with cavities. U.S. patent no. 7,452,017 B2 by Maffeis on November 18, 2008. “Quick Change Finger” that releasably connects a gripper finger to a robotic arm. U.S. patent no. 2010/0314895 A1 by Rizk and Delouis on December 16, 2010. “Long Travel Gripper” for a rectilinear, large jaw separation gripper. U.S. Patent No. 7,490,881,B2 by Null and Williams on February 7, 2009. “Automated Storage Library Gripper Apparatus and Method” for transporting and handling storage devices (cartridges). U.S. Patent No. 7,212,375 B2 by Dickey and Standt on May 1, 2007. “Gripper System” having a pair of jaws and operates in one plane having a central closure axis. U.S. Patent No. US 2010/0164243 A1 by Albin on July 1, 2010. “Stack Gripper” for gripping unbound printed products. U.S. Patent No. US 2007/0154292 A1 by Gammerler, Gunter, Meisel, Muller, Schubart on July 5, 2007. 4. Summary This survey gave an overview of the current state of manipulation systems, as well as insight into future manipulation systems through the discussion of research being performed in the field. It included a methodical discussion of industrial manipulation capabilities, advancements, and research with a focus on autonomous assembly applications. The Appendices include a glossary of terms, a listing of industrial robot system standards, and a method of design for assembly. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 38 of 63 In summary and with regard to end-of-arm tooling (EOAT) purchase, [EOAT, 1997] suggests the following tips that a user should follow:  No one gripper style will secure every part.  No matter how good the EOAT and no matter who built it, the user will always need to adjust it.  Before buying any tooling, wise application-specific users compare the proposed EOAT with part drawings to ensure a good fit.  The EOAT and the part weight together must not exceed the robot capacity. Also, choose tooling that's as light as possible to make the robot last longer. This survey determined that the end-effector patents found are generally special purpose and that breakthroughs in highly capable assembly systems are minimal. As stated by [DARPA, 2011] with regards to defense robotics, “Robots hold great promise for amplifying human effectiveness in Defense operations. Compared to human beings and animals, however, the mobility and manipulation capability of present day robots is poor. In addition, design and manufacturing of current robotic systems are time consuming, and fabrication costs remain high. If these limitations were overcome, robots could assist in the execution of military operations far more effectively across a far greater range of missions.” This statement can also be related to the capabilities of current robots needed for assembly operations. Dexterity, perception, and tactile capabilities of robot systems are advancing as exemplified by the multi-fingered grippers, the bin-picking capabilities, and the vision research. Also, safety and performance standards are beginning to consider collaboration of humans and robots within the same workspaces. However, several recommendations are listed in section 5 that suggest further advancements for robotic assembly systems. 5. Recommendations A Smart Assembly Workshop [Smart, 2006] was held at NIST in 2006 to develop a vision and to define the stateof-the-art and industry needs in Smart Assembly. Smart Assembly refers to a next-generation capability in assembly systems and technologies which integrate “virtual” and “real time” methods in order to achieve dramatic improvements in productivity, lead-time, quality, and agility. The purpose of the workshop was to develop a broad industry/academic vision and to define the state-of-the-art and needs in “Smart Assembly.” Topics included:  Defining and measuring aspects of smart assembly.  Identifying key characteristics and attributes of smart assembly systems.  Identifying critical scientific reserach challenges to enable smart assembly.  Identifying critical implementation and infrastructure/standards challenges.  Identifying models and opportunities for leveraging and collaboration to accelerate the development and implementation of smart assembly capability. The workshop provided a substantial first step towards the formulation and launching of a Smart Assembly initiative. The characteristics and attributes for the future vision state were clearly defined, which fed the definition of priority recommendations, and suggested next steps were outlined towards a unified program. One specific recommendation was that NIST should consider the creation of a National Smart Assembly Testbed in cooperation with industry sponsors to validate the interoperability and performance of smart assembly modules and systems. The following are recommendations from literature and from interviews with manufacturers. These recommendations may be useful for product development, research planning, and standards development.  Develop performance metrics for autonomous assembly current specifications from vendor products are limited to accuracy and resolution. Performance measurements should include both robot system performance measurements (i.e., overall system performance) and system component performance measurements (e.g., force sensor, gripper, robot). Survey of Industrial Manipulation 39 of 63 o An example performance measure testbed is shown in figure 23. The figure depicts an independent test setup that incorporates a 6-axis load cell to measure applied forces of an assembly operation, as well as definable measurements of success. The four step assembly shows a set of spur gears to be assembled using various standard force control capabilities and the resultant forces are monitored throughout the process using an independent load cell or force/torque sensor. o Other examples are: standard peg-in-hole tests (smooth peg or screws), slides, etc. o Vision type assembly tasks o Associated with these tests are, for example, force and other sensors with stock vendor algorithms having potentially many tuning variables Figure 23 NIST Performance Measures for Assembly concept drawing [Schofield, 2010] stated that:  Increased use of robots as ‘intelligent’ fixturing will make systems more flexible and give faster product change over times  External metrology will open up many applications where robots have previously not been sufficiently accurate  More human/robot interaction in a safe environment will maximize productivity  There is a need for reduced sizes of end-effector devices – compliance, force/torque sensors, quick changes, sensors (proximity, tactile)  There is a need to match autonomous robot systems capabilities to humans, i.e., as compared to precision tactility and dexterity by a surgeon, watchmaker, or jewelry maker. o tactility – there are limited/no sight applications where the robot needs to ‘feel‘ to perform high precision assembly (e.g., start an M3 screw or meshing small gears, parts) o dexterity – manipulating tools (e.g., tweezer sized grippers) and parts (e.g., pins, rivots) for precision assembly Recommendations from interviews with end-effector and robot manufacturers at the ProMat and Automate 2011 events in Chicago, IL, March 2011 who preferred to remain anonymous are as follows: End-Effectors:  Clear, standard interfaces for grippers  Integration of current industrial grippers with sensors to sense that a part being gripped has been acquired.  Verification of perception systems with low-cost gripper tactile sensors  Adaptive end-effectors so that robot control includes gripper control for example, unlike typical human arm/hand control, current robot and gripper systems allow the robot to move to a part, then the gripper grasps Survey of Industrial Manipulation 40 of 63 the part, and the robot moves the part. Alternatively, this motion would be done simultaneously with gripper feedback to the robot controller to adjust the arm and grip during the entire part acquisition process. Low cost tactile sensing for off-the-shelf pneumatic grippers is needed. Robots:  “Feel your way through the assembly process” including robots supported by low mass/quick response, high update rates, direct impedance control per joint.  Hand guiding robots through the teaching process.  Path planning of two-arm robots so they don’t interfere or collide with each other.  Robots on vehicles The issue is that the automated guided vehicle (AGV) is addressed by standards maintained by the industrial truck interest group. This situation was great for the initial applications of the load-carrying AGV (based on identifiable tracks in an industrial setting), but has become problematic as the AGV is adapted to become more of a co-worker to the human. Since the redefinition of the term ‘robot’ within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the AGV now fits within its purview. The inclusion of roving robot arms and similar applications in a holistic structure is not currently being considered by industrial standards organizations.  Dynamic work volumes, for example robot arms on vehicles, that are intelligently controlled to avoid obstacles as the vehicle moves the robot and its payload. Included here is intelligent environment sensing and control.  Tactile response is critical in assembly operations, and has been most difficult to develop with robots. A robot does an assigned task very well and repetitively, but has problems with variable situations.  Collaborative robots, since they will play a huge part in future assembly applications. More work is needed in this area. The ISO/TS 15066 technical specification for how to implement robot collaboration with humans and other equipment (e.g., AGV’s) will address some of this need. The ISO 10218-1 standard provides the manufacturer with information for construction of collaborative robots. The ISO 10218-2 standard provides the integrator and user guidance on how to use collaborative robots.  Measurement methods are needed for the component inaccuracies stemming from the robot, end-effector, sensors, fixturing, dynamics, joint flex, or other inputs to the assembly process, so that robots can be designed to meet high accuracy, assembly applications. An example scenario suggested by robot manufacturers was to assemble a kit of parts, such as a disposable camera, having small parts that mesh and require robot control, including force sensing, perception, and high dexterity. During an industry workshop on Dynamic Perception [Eastman, 2009], attendees discussed the scenario of assembling a kit for the purpose of measuring robot assembly system performance: “Kit loading and unloading has the advantage of offering well-defined, transportable test artifacts. A manufacturing assembly challenge might consist of a suitcase-style case that folds open with hinges that allow the two sides to be disconnected. In one half would be a set of parts of specified sizes and shapes in holders designed for each. The other half would be a bin. There could also be a mat with outlined spots for each part. The challenge kit would support a number of tasks. All the parts could be dumped in the bin side and then picked and placed onto the kit side in the designated locations. Alternatively, the kit side could be unloaded part by part into the bin. For evaluating robot precision in grasping, the kit side could be unloaded onto the mat to match the outlines (there are no supporting sides to guide a part.) The parts could be varied to provide both a recognition task and an orientation and gripping task, and the parts could vary in difficulty of recognition and gripping. For mobile manipulators, the bin and kit could be separated. The parts could be designed with different geometries, such as prismatic, cylindrical, or ovoid, so that some are easier for pose calculations and some are harder. For single-arm robot systems, the assembly should either have, or come with, a stable base to build on. Beyond simple parts handling, the kit could be assembled with or without human help. The parts could be designed for various assembly operations, such as peg-in-hole with gravity to hold them in place, screw threads, etc., and with different levels of difficulty. 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[Yoon, 2008] Youngrock Yoon, Akio Kosaka, Avinash C Kak, "A New Kalman-Filter-BasedFramework for Fast and Accurate Visual Tracking of Rigid Objects," IEEE Transactions on Robotics,vol. 24, No. 5, October 2008 Survey of Industrial Manipulation 47 of 637. Appendixa. TerminologyThis terminology was extracted from [Monkman, 2007] and [Nof, 1999]. The source for each term below isdesignated as either [1] or [2] respectively. The terminology extracted was chosen based on how well thedefinition fit the context of this document. In some cases, there are duplicate definitions for the same term.Accuracy: The ability of a robot to position its end-effector at a programmed location in space. Accuracy ischaracterized by the difference between the position to which the robot tool-point automatically goes and theoriginally taught position, particularly at nominal load and normal operating temperature.Actuator: A motor or transducer that converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy into power for motionor reaction. AdaptiveControl: A control method used to achieve near-optimum performance by continuously andautomatically adjusting control parameters in response to measured process variables. Its operation is in theconventional manner of a machine tool or robot with two additional components: 1. At least one sensor which is able to measure working conditions; and2. A computer algorithm which processed the sensor information and sends suitable signals to correct theoperation of the conventional system Artificial Intelligence (AI): The ability of a machine system to perceive anticipated or unanticipated newconditions, decide what actions must be performed under the conditions, and plan the actions accordingly. Assembly (Robotic): Robot manipulation of components resulting in a finished assembled product. AssemblyConstraints: Logical conditions that determine the set of all feasible assembly sequences for a givenproduct. Assembly constraints can be of two types: geometric precedence constraints (those arising from the partgeometry) and process constraints (those arising from assembly process issues). Astrictivegripper: A binding force produced by a field is astrictive. This field may take the form of airmovement (vacuum suction), magnetism or electrostatic charge displacement.Automation: Automatically controlled operation of an apparatus, process, or system by mechanical orelectronic devices that replace human observation, effort, and decision. Basic jaw (universal jaw): The part of an impactive gripper subjected to movement. An integral part of thegripper mechanics, the basic jaw is not usually replaceable. However, the basic jaws may be fitted with additionalfingers in accordance with specific requirements. Basicunit: Basic module containing all gripper components which is equipped for connecting (flange, holepattern) the gripper to the manipulator. The connecting capability implies a mechanical, power, and informationinterface.Chemoadhesion: Contigutive prehension force by means of chemical effects (usually in the form of anadhesive). Survey of Industrial Manipulation 48 of 63Closed –Loop Control: The use of a feedback loop to measure and compare actual system performance withdesired performance. This strategy allows the robot control to make any necessary adjustments.Compliance: A feature of a robot which allows for mechanical float in the tooling in relation to the robot toolmounting plate. This feature enables the correction of misalignment errors encountered when parts are matedduring assembly operations or loaded into tight-fitting fixture or periphery equipment. CompliantAssembly: The deliberate placement of a known, engineered, and relatively large compliance intotooling in order to avoid wedging and jamming during rigid part assembly. ContigutiveGripper: Contigutive means touching. Grippers whose surface must make direct contact with theobjects surface in order to produce prehension are termed contigutive. Examples include chemical and thermaladhesion. CompliantSupport: In rigid part assembly, compliant support provides both lateral and angular compliancefor at least one of the mating parts. ContactSensor: A grouping of sensors consisting of tactile, touch, and force/torque sensors. A contact sensoris used to detect contact of the robot hand with external objects. Control System (Gripper): In most of the cases a relatively simple control component for analyzing of pre-processing sensor information for regulation and/or automatic adjustment of prehension forces. Conveyor TrackingRobot: A robot synchronized with the movement of a conveyor. Frequent updating of theinput signal of the desired position on the conveyor is required. Degrees ofFreedom: The number of independent ways the end-effector can move. It is defined by the numberof rotational or translational axes through which motion can be obtained. Every variable representing a degree offreedom must be specified if the physical state of the manipulator is to be completely defined. Dextroushand: Anthropoidal artificial hand (rarely for industrial use), which is equipped with three or morejointed fingers and may be capable of sophisticated, programmed or remote controlled operations.Disassembly: the inverse of the assembly process, in which products are decomposed into parts andsubassemblies. In product remanufacturing the disassembly path and the termination goal are not necessarilyfixed, but rather are adapted according to the actual product condition. Doublegrippers: Two grippers mounted on the same substrate, intended for the temporal and functionalprehension of two objects independently. Drivesystem: A component assembly which transforms the applied (electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic) energyinto rotary or translational motion in a given kinematic system. DualGrippers: Tow grippers mounted on the same substrate, intended for the simultaneous prehension of twoobjects.Electroadhesion: prehension force by means of an electrostatic field.End-Effector : Also known as end-of-arm tooling or, more simply, hand. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 49 of 63Generic term for all functional units involved in direct interaction of the robot system with theenvironment or with a given object. These include grippers, robot tools, inspection equipment and other parts atthe end of a kinematic chain.The subsystem of an industrial robot system that links the mechanical portion of the robot (manipulator)to the part being handled or worked on and gives the robot the ability to pick up and transfer parts and/or handle amultitude of differing tools to perform work on parts. It is commonly made up of four distinct elements: a methodof attachment of the hand or tool to the robot tool mounting plate, power for actuation of tooling machines,mechanical linkages, and sensors integrated into the tooling. Examples include grippers, paint spraying nozzles,welding guns, and laser gauging devices. End-Effector,Turret: A number of end-effectors, usually small, that are mounted on a turret for quickautomatic change of end-effectors during operation. EndpointControl: Control wherein the motions of the axes are such that the endpoint moves along a pre-specified type of path line (straight line, circle, etc.) EndpointRigidity: The resistance of the hand, tool, or endpoint of a manipulator arm to motion under appliedforce. Error-AbsorbingTool: A type of robot end-effector able to compensate for small variations in position andorientation. Especially suitable for assembly tasks, where the insertion of components demands tight tolerancepositioning and orientation of the parts. (See also Remote Center Compliance device). Extendedjaw: An (optional) additional jaw situated at the end of an impactive gripper finger. It may, inpreference to the finger itself, be modified to fit the profile of the object and it may be replaceable. ExternalSensor: A feedback device that is outside the inherent makeup of a robot system, or a device used toeffect the actions of a robot system that are used to source a signal independent of the robot’s internal design.Fixture: A device used for holding and positioning a workpiece without guiding the tool. Flexibility(Gripper): The ability of a gripper to conform to parts that have irregular shapes and adapt to partsthat are inaccurately oriented with respect to the gripper. FlexibleFixturing: Fixture systems with the ability of accommodating several part types for the same type ofoperation. The fixture can be robotic and change automatically according to sensor input detecting the partchange. Flexible FixturingRobots: Robots working in parallel, designed to hold and position parts on which otherrobots or people or automation can work. ForceControl: A method of error detection in which the force exerted on the end-effector is sensed and fedback to the controller, usually by mechanical, hydraulic or electric transducers. Force-TorqueSensors: The sensors that measure the amount of force and torque exerted b y the mechanicalhand along three hand-referenced orthogonal directions and applied around a point ahead and away from thesensors. GeometricDexterity: The ability of the robot to achieve a wide range of orientations of the hand with the toolcenter point in a specified position. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 50 of 63Grasp Planning: A capability of a robot programming language to determine where to grasp object in order toavoid collisions during grasping or moving. The grasp configuration is chosen so that objects are stable in thegripper.Gripper : The generic term for all prehension devices whether robotic or otherwise. Loosely defined in fourcategories: Impactive, Astrictive, Ingressive and Contigutive.The grasping hand of the robot which manipulated objects and tools to fulfill a given task. Gripperaxis: A frame with its origin in the TCP(Tool Center Point). This coordinate system is used to specifythe gripper orientation. Gripper ChangingSystem: A module for rapid manual, but in most cases automatic, exchange of an end-effector using a standard mechanical interface. In doing so, all power and control cables must be disconnectedand reconnected. Gripper DesignFactors: Factors considered during the design of a gripper in order to prevent serious damageto the tool or facilitate quick repair and alignment. The factors include: parts’ or tools’ shape, dimension, weight,and material; adjustment for realignment in the x and y direction; easy-to-remove fingers; mechanical fusing(shear pins, etc.); locating surface at the gripper-arm interface; spring loading in the z(vertical) direction; andspecification of spare gripper fingers. GripperExternal: a type of mechanical gripper used to grasp the exterior surface of an object with closedfingers. Gripper,Internal: A type of mechanical gripper used to grip the internal surface of an object with openfingers. GripperFinger: Rigid, elastic, or multi-link grasping organ to enclose or clasp the object to be handled. Gripper Hand (Hand Unit): Grippers with multiple jointed fingers, each of them representing an openkinematic chain and possessing a high degree of freedom with f joints. Gripperjaw: The part of the gripper to which the fingers are normally attached. The jaw does not necessarilycome into contact with the object to be gripped. Note: in some cases gripper fingers may be fitted with anadditional small (extended) jaw at their ends. Gripper,Soft: A type of mechanical gripper which provides the capability of conforming to part of theperiphery of an object of any shape. Gripper, SwingType: A type of mechanical gripper which can move its fingers in a swinging motion. Gripper,Translational: a type of mechanical gripper which can move its own fingers, keeping them parallel.Gripper, Universal: A gripper capable of handling and manipulating many different object of varying weights,shapes, and materials. GrippingArea: The area of the prehension (gripper jaw) across which force is transmitted to the objectsurface. The larger the contact surface area of an impactive gripper, the smaller the pressure on the object surface.Gripping Surface(s) [1] : The passive contact surface between object and gripper, i.e., the surface which issubjected to prehension forces. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 51 of 63The surfaces, such as the inside of the fingers, on the robot gripper or hand that are used for grasping. Hand (Robot’s): A fingered gripper sometimes distinguished from a regular gripper by having more than threefingers and more dexterous finger motions resembling those of the human hand. Hand CoordinateSystem: A robot coordinate system based on the last axis of the robot manipulator.Handchanger: A mechanism analogous to a tool changer on a machining center or other machine tool. Itpermits a single robot arm to equip itself with a series of task-specific hands or grippers. HardTooling: Traditional tooling where every part to be processed in the robotic cell has its own fixtures andtools. It results in increased changeover time and processing delays. Holdingsystem: A term often used for an active prehension system including a gripper, jaws and fingers. Itmay also be apply to a passive temporary retaining device. Impactivegripper: A mechanical gripper whereby prehension is achieved by impactive forces, i.e. forceswhich impact against the surface of the object to be acquired. Ingressivegripper: Ingression revers to the permeation of an objects surface by the prehension means.Ingression can be intrusive (pins) or non intrusive (hook and loop) Inspection (Robotic): Robot manipulation and sensory feedback to check the compliance of a part orassembly with specifications. In such applications robots are used in conjunction with sensors, such as a videocamera, laser, or ultrasonic detector, to check part locations, identify defects, or recognize parts for sorting.Jamming: In part assembly, jamming is a condition where forces applied to the part for part mating point in thewrong direction. As a result, the part to be inserted will not move. Joint GeometryInformation: Geometry data for the mating of the parts to be joined, assembled, or welded. KinematicChain: Pertaining to manipulator. The combination of rotary and/or translational joints, or axes ofmotion. KinematicSystem: Pertaining to end-effector. Mechanical unit (gear) converting drive motion of the primemover into prehension action (jaw motion) with characteristic transmission rates for velocities and forces. Themost often used kinematic components are lever, screw, and toggle lever gears. The gear determines the finalvelocity of the jaw movement, and the gripping force characteristics. Grippers without moving elements requireno kinematics.Magnetoadhesion: Prehension force by means of a magnetic field (permanent or electrically generated). MainReference: A geometric reference which must be maintained throughout a production process. Thecompliance with the references of the component elements of a subassembly guarantees the geometry of thecomplete assembly. Manipulation (Robotic): The handling of objects, by moving, inserting, orienting, twisting, and so on, to be inthe proper position for machining, assembling, or some other operation. In many cases it is the tool that is beingmanipulated rather than the object being processed. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 52 of 63Material Handling (Robotic) : the use of the robot’s basic capability to transport objects. It is common to findrobots performing material-handling tasks and interfacing with other material-handling equipment such ascontainers, conveyors, guided vehicles, monorails, automated storage/retrieval systems, and carousels. Mechanical GripDevices: The most widely used type of end-of-arm tooling in parts-handling applications.Pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators are used to generate a holding force which is transferred to the partvia linkages and fingers. Some devices are able to sense and vary the grip force and grip opening. Minimal Precedence Constraint (MPC)Method: A method for the generation of assembly sequences basedon the identification of geometric precedence constraints that implicitly represent all geometrically feasibleassembly sequences. The minimal precedence constraint for an assembly component is defined as the alternativeassembly states that will prevent the assembly of this component. MountingPlate: The means of attaching end-of-arm tooling to an industrial robot. It is located at the end ofthe last axis of motion on the robot. The mounting plate is sometimes used with an adapter plate to enable the useof a wide range of tools and tool power sources. Multi-gripperSystem: A robot system with several grippers mounted on a turret-like wrist, or capable ofautomatically exchanging its gripper with alternative grippers, or having a gripper for multiple parts. A type ofmechanical gripper enabling effective simultaneous execution of two or more different jobs effectively. Multiplegrippers: Several grippers mounted on the same substrate, intended for the simultaneous prehensionof more than two objects. Multi-hand RobotSystems: A class of robotic manipulators with more than one end-effector, enablingeffective simultaneous execution of two or more different jobs. Design methods for each individual hand in amulti-hand system are similar to those of single hands, but must also consider the other hands NoncontactSensor: A type of sensor, including proximity and vision sensors, that functions without any directcontact with objects.Orientation: Also known as positioning. The consistent movement or manipulation of an object into acontrolled position and attitude in space. OrientationFinding: The use of a vision system to locate objects so they can be grasped by the manipulator ormated with other parts.Palletizing/Depalletizing: A term used for loading/unloading a carton, container, or pallet with parts inorganized rows and possibly in multiple layers. PartMating: The action of assembling two parts together according to the assembly design specifications. Itoccurs in four stages: approach, chamfer crossing, one-point contact, and two-point contact. Part MatingTheory: Predicts the success or failure mode of the assembly of common geometry parts, such asround pegs and holes, screw threads, gears, and some simple prismatic part shapes. Two common failure modesduring two-point contact are wedging and jamming.Payload: The maximum weight that a robot can handle satisfactorily during its normal operations andextensions. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 53 of 63Peripheral Equipment: The equipment used in conjunction with the robot for a complete robotic system. Thisequipment includes grippers, conveyors, part positioners, and part or material feeders that are needed with therobot. PhotoelectricSensors: A register control using a light source, one or more phototubes, a suitable opticalsystem, and amplifier, and a relay to actuate control equipment when a change occurs in the amount of lightreflected from a moving surface due to register marks, dark areas of a design, or surface defects.Pick-and-Place: A grasp-and-release task, usually involving a positioning task. Pneumatic PickupDevice: The end-of-arm tooling such as vacuum cups, pressurized bladders, andpressurized fingers.Pose: The robot’s joints position for a particular end-effector position and orientation within the robot’sworkspace. Specific positions are named according to the tasks the robot is performing; for example, the homepose, which indicates the resting position of the robot’s arm. PositionControl: a control by a system in which the input command is the desired position of a body. PositionFinding: The use of a vision system to locate objects so they can be grasped by a manipulator ormated with other parts.Positioners: Also known as positioning table, positioners are fixture devices for locating the parts to beprocessed n the required position and orientation. Positioners can be implemented as hard tooling devices orreprogrammable robotic devices which reduce the setup time and part changeover times. For instance,positioners are used in robotic arc welding to hold and position pieces to be welded. The movable axes of thepositioner are sometimes considered additional robot axes. The robot controller controls all axes in order topresent the seam to be welded by the robot’s torch in the location and orientation taught or modified by adaptivefeedback, or changes inserted by the operator, dynamically during execution. Precision (Robot): A general concept reflecting the robot’s accuracy, repeatability, and resolution.Prehendability: The suitability of an object to be automatically gripped. Dependant on the surface properties,weight and strength when exposed to prehension forces. This property can sometimes be enhanced by applyingsuch surfaces or elements (handling adapters) which are required only for a particular purpose.Prehension: The act of acquiring and object in or onto the gripper. (we must modify some of these termsbased on our chosen vocabulary (gripper/end-effector and object/workpiece) Prehensionplanning: Deals with the problem of how to ensure stable mating between robot gripper andworkpiece. A prehension strategy must be chosen in such a way that it can be accomplished in a stable mannerand collision free. Post prehension misalignment of the object is undesirable. In many circumstances, specialconstraints must be observed in order to avoid contact with certain parts of the object (forbidden zones) Prehensionsystems: Complete systems including grippers supplemented with additional units (subsystems),e.g., rotation, pivot and short-travel units, changing systems, joining (adjustment) tools, collision and overloadprotection mechanisms, measuring devices and other sensors. PressurizedBladder: A pneumatic pickup device which is generally designed especially to conform to theshape of the part. The deflated bladder is placed in or around the part. Pressurized air causes the bladder to Survey of Industrial Manipulation 54 of 63expand, contact the part, and conform to the surface of the part, applying equal pressure to all points of thecontacted surface. PressurizedFingers: A pneumatic pickup device that has one straight half, which contacts the part to behandled, one ribbed half, and a cavity for pressurized air between the two halves. Air pressure filling the cavitycauses the ribbed half to expand and “wrap” the straight side around a part. ProstheticRobot: A programmable manipulator or device that substitutes for lost functions of human limbs. Protectionsystem: These are elements attached to the inner or outer part of the gripper which are activated incase of overload or collision in order to protect the robot and gripper from damage (warning signal, emergencystop activation, passive or active evasive movement). ProximitySensor: A device which senses that an object is only a short distance away and /or measures howfar away it is. Proximity sensors typically work on the principles of triangulation of reflected light, elapsed timefor the reflected sound, intensity-induced eddy currents, magnetic fields, back pressure from air jets, and others.Repeatability: The envelope of variance of the robot tool point position for repeated cycles under the sameconditions. It is obtained from the deviation between the positions and orientations reached at the end of severalsimilar cycles.Resolution: The smallest incremental motion which can be produced by the manipulator. It serves as oneindication of the manipulator accuracy. Three factors determining the resolution: mechanical resolution, controlresolution, and programming resolution.Retention: Pertains to the post prehension status of an object already held in the gripper. Note: prehension andretention forces are not always equal. Retro-reflectiveSensing: A photoelectric source consolidation method based on the aiming of the light beaminto a white retro target feeding a photoelectric sensor.Rigidity: The property of a robot to retain its stiffness under loading and movement. Rigidity can be improvedby features such as a cast-iron base, precision ball screws on all axial drives, ground and hardened spiral bevelgears in the wrist, brakes on the least stiff axes, and end-effector design that permits a workpiece or tool to be heldsnugly. RobotTask: Specification of the goals for the positioning of the object being manipulated by the robot,ignoring the motions required by the robot to achieve these tasks. RoboticAssembly: the combination of robots, people, and other technologies for the purpose of assembly in atechnologically and economically feasible manner. Robotic assembly offers an alternative with some of theflexibility of people and the uniform performance of the fixed automation. RoboticFixturing: a programmable fixture system that can accommodate a set of parts for processing in thesame workcell. SearchRoutine: A robot function that searches for a precise location when it is not known exactly. An axis oraxes move slowly in one direction until terminated by an external signal. It is used in stacking and unstacking ofparts, locating workpieces, or inserting parts in holes. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 55 of 63Secondary References: Geometric references used in assembling a main assembly component. Thecompliance with the references of the components guarantees the correct geometry of the completed assembly. Selective Compliance Assembly Robotic Arm (SCARA): A horizontal-revolute configuration robot designedat Japan’s Yamanachi University. The tabletop-size arm with permanently tilted, high-stiffness links sweepsacross a fixtured area and is especially suited for small-parts insertion tasks in the vertical (z) direction.Sensing: The feedback from the environment of the robot which enables the robot to react to its environment.Sensory inputs may come from a variety of sensor types, including proximity switches, force sensors, andmachine vision systems. Sensor CoordinateSystem: A coordinate system mounted over the workspace of the robot and assigned to asensor. Sensor Fusion (Sensor Integration): The coordination and integration of data from diverse sources toproduce a usable perspective for a robotics system. A large number of sensors can be applied, and theinformation they gather from the work environment or workpiece is analyzed and integrated in a uniquemeaningful stream of feedback date to the robotic manipulator.Sensor System : Sensors pertinent to the task or prehension. This may include sensors built into the end-effector, possibly with integrated data pre-processing, for position detection, registration of object approach,determination of gripping force, path and angle measurements, slippage detection etc.The components of a robot system which monitor and interpret events in the environment. Internalmeasurement devices, also considered sensors, are part of closed axis-control loops and monitor joint position,velocity, acceleration, wrist force, and gripper force. External sensors update the robot model and are used forapproximation, touch, geometry, vision, and safety. A data acquisition system uses data from sensors t o generatepatterns. A data processing system then identifies the patterns and generates frames for the dynamic world-modelprocessor. SensorGlove: A robotics sensor capable of precision measurement of human gestures, with applications insurgery and telerobotics. Sensory-ControlledRobot: Also known as intelligent robot. A robot whose program sequence can bemodified as a function of information sensed from its environment. The robot can be served or non-servoed. SlipSensors: Sensors that measure the distribution and amount of contact area pressure between hand andobjects positioned tangentially to the hand. They may be single-point, multiple-point (array), simple binary (yes-no), or proportional sensors. Sorting (Robotic): The integrated operation of a sensor system and a robot for the discrimination of two ormore types of workpieces.Sucker: Normally refers to a passive suction element (disk, cap or cup) which does not require active vacuumsuction but relies on the evaluation of air by distortion of the element against the object surface. Suctionhead: A form of astrictive gripper which may consist of one or more vacuum suction elements (discs,caps or cups) from which air is actively evacuated by means of externally generated negative pressure.Synchronization: very specific, not sure if we need it. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 56 of 63Tactile Sensing: The detection by a robot through contact by touch, force, pattern slip, and movement. Tactilesensing allows for the determination of local shape, orientation and feedback forces of a grasped workpiece.Thermoadhesion: Contigutive prehension force by means of thermal effects (usually in the form of freezing ormelting). Tool Center Point (TCP): Working pint at the end of a kinematic chain. The TCP serves also as aprogrammed reference point for an end effector and as a rule determines the origin of the tool frame. Acoordinate system whose origin coincides with the TCP is called the tool frame. Multiple gripper heads maypossess several TCPs or one main TCP with the rest being defined relative to the main TCP by tool offsets.A tool-related reference point that lies along the last wrist axis at a user-specified distance from the wrist. Tool CoordinateSystem: A coordinate system assigned to the end-effector. Tool-Coordinateprogramming: Programming the motion of each robot axis so that the tool held by the rootgripper is always geld normal to the work surface. TorqueControl: A method to control the motions of a robot driven by electric motors. The torque producedby the motor is treated as an input to the robot joint. The torque value is controlled by the motor current. Torque/ForceController: A control system capable of sensing forces and torques encountered duringassembly or movement of objects, and /or generating forces on joint torques by the manipulator which arecontrolled to reach desired levels. TouchSensors: Sensors that measure the distribution and amount of contact area pressure between hand andobjects perpendicular to the hand. Touch sensors may be single point, multiple-point (array), simple binary (yes-no), or proportional sensors, or may appear in the form of artificial skin.Tracking: A continuous position-control response to continuously changing input requirements. Tracking (Line): The ability of a robot to work with continuously moving production lines and conveyors.Moving-base line tracking and stationary-base line tracking are the two methods of line tracking. TrackingSensor: Sensors used by the robot to continuously adjust the robot path in real time while it ismoving. VacuumCups: A type of pneumatic pickup device which attaches to parts being transferred via a suction ofvacuum pressure created by a venturi or a vacuum pump. VisionSystem: A camera (or cameras) system interfaced to guide a robot to locate a part, identify it, direct thegripper to a suitable grasping position, pickup the part, and bring it to the work area. A coordinate transformationbetween the cameras and the robot must be carried out to enable proper operation of the system.Wedging: In rigid part assembly, a condition where two-point contact occurs too early in part mating, leadingto the part that is supposed to be inserted appearing to be stuck in the hole. Unlike jamming, wedging is causedby geometric rather than ill-proportioned applied forces. Workpiece orobject: A general term which refers to the component of object to be prehended or which isalready under prehension by the gripper. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 57 of 63Wrist: A set joints, usually rotational, between the arm and the hand or end-effector, which allow the hand orend-effector to be oriented relative to the workpiece. Wrist forceSensor: A structure with some compliant sections and transducers that serve as force sensors bymeasuring the deflections of the compliant sections. The types of transducers used are strain-gauge, piezoelectric,magnetostrictive, and magnetic. b. Industrial Robot System StandardsThis section includes a list of standards from the normative and bibliography references listed in ISO 10218;ANSI/RIA R15.06 and [Moon, 2009]. ISO 4413, Hydraulic fluid power — General rules relating to systemsISO 4414, Pneumatic fluid power — General rules relating to systemsISO/IEC Guide 51, Safety aspects — Guidelines for their inclusion in standardsISO 7000, Graphical symbols for use on equipment — Index and synopsisISO 8373:1994, Manipulating industrial robots — VocabularyISO 9283:1998, Manipulating industrial robots — Performance criteria and related test methodsISO 9409 (all parts), Manipulating industrial robots — Mechanical interfacesISO 9946, Manipulating industrial robots — Presentation of characteristicsISO 10218-1, Robots and robotic devices — Safety requirements — Part 1: Industrial robotISO 10218-2, Robots and robotic devices — Safety requirements — Part 2: Industrial robot system andintegrationISO 11161, Safety of machinery — Industrial automation systems — Safety of integrated manufacturingsystems — Basic requirementsISO 11593:1996 Manipulating industrial robots --Automatic end effector exchange systems --Vocabulary/presentation of characteristicsISO 12100:2010 Safety of machinery -General principles for design -Risk assessment and risk reductionISO/TR 13309:1995 Manipulating industrial robots -Informative guide on test equipment and metrologymethods of operation for robot performance evaluation in accordance with ISO 9283ISO 13849-1:2006, Safety of machinery — Safety-related parts of control systems — Part 1: Generalprinciples for designISO 13850, Safety of machinery — Emergency stop — Principle for designISO 13851, Safety of machinery — Two-hand control devices — Functional aspects and design principlesISO 13854, Safety of machinery — Minimum gaps to avoid crushing of parts of the human bodyISO 13855, Safety of machinery — Position of protective equipment with respect to the approach speeds of partsof the human bodyISO 13856-1, Safety of machinery — Pressure-sensing protective devices — Part 1: General principles for designand testing of pressure-sensitive mats and pressure-sensitive floorsISO 13857, Safety of machinery — Safety distances to prevent danger zones being reached by the upperlimbs and lower limbsISO 14118, Safety of machinery — Prevention of unexpected start-upISO 14119, Safety of machinery — Interlocking devices associated with guards — Principles for design andselectionISO 14120, Safety of machinery — Guards — General requirements for the design and construction of fixed andmovable guardsISO/TR 11688-1:1995 Acoustics — Recommended practice for the design of low-noise machinery andequipment — Part 1: PlanningISO 14123, Safety of machinery Reduction of risks to health from hazardous substances emitted by Survey of Industrial Manipulation 58 of 63machineryISO 14159 Safety of machinery Hygiene requirements for the design of machineryISO 14539:2000 Manipulating industrial robots --Object handling with grasp-type grippers -Vocabulary andpresentation of characteristicsISO/TS 15066 Technical specification on collaborative workspace (under elaboration)ISO 19353, Safety of machinery Fire prevention and protectionIEC 60204-1:2005, Safety of machinery — Electrical equipment of machines — Part 1: General requirementsIEC 60364-7-729, Low-voltage electrical installations — Part 7-729: Requirements for special installations orlocations — Operating or maintenance gangwaysIEC 61000‐6‐2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) — Part 6‐2: Generic standards — Immunity for industrialenvironmentsIEC 61000‐6‐4, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) — Part 6: Generic standards — Section 4: Emissionstandard for industrial environmentsIEC 61496-1, Safety of machinery — Electro-sensitive protective equipmentIEC 61496‐2, Safety of machinery — Electro‐sensitive protective equipment — Part 2: Particular requirementsfor equipment using active opto‐electronic protective devices (AOPDs)IEC 61800-5-2 Adjustable Speed Electrical Power Drive SystemsIEC 62061:2005, Safety of machinery — Functional safety of safety-related electrical, electronic andprogrammable control systemsISO/CIE 8995-1, Lighting of work places — Part 1: IndoorEN 563, Safety of machinery Temperatures of touchable surfaces Ergonomics data to establishtemperature limit values for hot surfacesEN 1093, Safety of machinery Evaluation of the emission of airborne hazardous substancesEN 1127, Explosive atmospheres Explosion prevention and protectionEN 12198, Safety of machinery Assessment and reduction of risks arising from radiation emitted bymachineryCEN/TR 14715, Safety of machinery Ionizing radiation emitted by machinery Guidance for theapplication of technical standards in the design of machinery in order to comply with legislativerequirementsBGIA/DGUV study Procedural Guideline for the Arrangement of Workplaces with CollaborativeRobotsNFPA 70E 2009 Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace – revised to address safety gaps and increaseelectrical worker protection from Shock, electrocution, arc flash, and arc blast.ANSI/NFPA 79-1997 Electrical Standard for Industrial machineryANSI/UL 1740-1998 Safety Standard for robots and robotic equipmentOSHA 1904 General requirement for recording and reporting occupational injuries and illnessesOSHA 1910.147-Control of hazardous energy (Lockout/Tagout)OSHA 1910.212 General requirements for all machines (Machine guarding)OSHA 1910.219 Mechanical power transmission apparatusANSI B11.19-1990 (R1996), Safeguarding performance criteriaANSI B11.20-1991 (R1996), Safety requirements for flexible manufacturing systems/cellsANSI Z49.1 1994, Safety in welding, cutting and allied processesANSI Z136.1-1993, Safe use of lasersANSI Z244.1-1982 (R1993), Safety Requirements for the Lock Out/Tag Out of Energy SourcesANSI Z535.1 1998, Safety Color CodeANSI Z535.2-1998, Environmental and Facility Safety SignsANSI Z535.3-1998, Criteria for Safety Symbols and LabelsANSI Z535.4-1998, Product Safety Signs and LabelsANSI Z535.5-1998, Accident Prevention Tags (for Temporary Hazards)ANSI/ASME B15.1-1992, Safety Standards for Mechanical Power Transmission Apparatus Survey of Industrial Manipulation 59 of 63ANSI/AWS D16.2-1994, Components of Robotic and Automatic WeldingANSI/UL508-1988, Industrial Control EquipmentANSI/UL969-1991, Standard for safety-marking and labeling systemsUL 991 Tests for safety-related controls employing solid-state devicesUL 1998-Safety-related software c. Design for Assembly – Boothroyd-Dewhurst MethodThe Boothroyd-Dewhurst Design for Assembly (DfA) evaluation [AMI, 2011] centers on establishing the cost ofhandling and inserting component parts. The process (see Figure 24) can be applied to manual or automatedassembly, which is further subdivided into high-speed dedicated or robotic. An aid to the selection of theassembly system is also provided by a simple analysis of the expected production volume, payback periodrequired, number of parts in the assembly, and number of product styles. Regardless of the assembly system, parts in the assembly are evaluated in terms of ease of handling and ease ofinsertion, and a decision is made as to the necessity of the part in question. The findings are then compared tosynthetic data, and from this a time and cost are generated for the assembly of that part. The opportunity forreducing this is found by examining each part in turn and identifying whether each exists as a separate part forfundamental reasons. These fundamental reasons are:  During operation of the product, does the part move relative to all other parts already assembled? Must the part be of a different material from all other parts already assembled? Or isolated from them? Must the part be separate from all those already assembled because otherwise necessary assembly ordisassembly of other separate parts would be impossible? Figure 24 Boothroyd-Dewhurst Design for Assembly Method The second stage of the analysis is to examine the handling and insertion of each component part. For manualassembly, a two-digit handling code and a two-digit insertion code are identified from synthetic data tables. Thetables categorize components with respect to their features for handling such as size, weight, and required amount Survey of Industrial Manipulation 60 of 63of orientation. For insertion, there are categories for part alignment, the type of securing method, and whether thepart is secured on insertion or as a separate process. These codes are then cross-referenced to identify the time forthat operation from the table. The codes and subsequent times are used to determine a number of metrics:  Assembly time (TM) is determined by summing the handling and insertion times Assembly cost (CM) is proportional to TM by a factor that accounts for wage rate and overheads Theoretical minimum number of parts (NM) is the summation of all those essential parts determinedduring the first stage Design efficiency is defined as the ideal assembly time divided by the estimated assembly time The ideal assembly time is given by 3NM, where the 3 represents a handling time of 1.5 seconds andinsertion time of 1.5 seconds, for an ideal component. The estimated assembly time is TM. Though costs and times are determined, care must be taken in the use of these values in an absolute sense. As withother techniques, values are best used for comparing redesigns. d. Types of Force Control FunctionsTable 5 lists types of force control functions and descriptions from the [Fanuc, 2007] force control sensoroperator’s manual. Also, Figure 25 shows drawings of example assembly operations to better acquaint the readerwith the types of assembly operations that can be accomplished using robotic force control. Survey of Industrial Manipulation 61 of 63Table 5 Types of Force Control Functions[copyright information-use permission granted by Fanuc Robots] Survey of Industrial Manipulation